Taylor series
The Taylor series is a formula that determines a polynomial approximation in x of some mathematical function f(x) centred at some value x0:
where f(m) represents the mth derivative with respect to x of the function f.
In the special case where x0 = 0, the series is known as the Maclaurin series of f(x):
The Taylor and Maclaurin series expansions are used elsewhere in this help file to provide polynomial approximations to probability distribution functions.
Read on: The Central Limit Theorem
ModelRisk
Monte Carlo simulation in Excel. Learn more
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Adding risk and uncertainty to your project schedule. Learn more
Navigation
- Risk management
- Risk management introduction
- What are risks and opportunities?
- Planning a risk analysis
- Clearly stating risk management questions
- Evaluating risk management options
- Introduction to risk analysis
- The quality of a risk analysis
- Using risk analysis to make better decisions
- Explaining a models assumptions
- Statistical descriptions of model outputs
- Simulation Statistical Results
- Preparing a risk analysis report
- Graphical descriptions of model outputs
- Presenting and using results introduction
- Statistical descriptions of model results
- Mean deviation (MD)
- Range
- Semi-variance and semi-standard deviation
- Kurtosis (K)
- Mean
- Skewness (S)
- Conditional mean
- Custom simulation statistics table
- Mode
- Cumulative percentiles
- Median
- Relative positioning of mode median and mean
- Variance
- Standard deviation
- Inter-percentile range
- Normalized measures of spread - the CofV
- Graphical descriptionss of model results
- Showing probability ranges
- Overlaying histogram plots
- Scatter plots
- Effect of varying number of bars
- Sturges rule
- Relationship between cdf and density (histogram) plots
- Difficulty of interpreting the vertical scale
- Stochastic dominance tests
- Risk-return plots
- Second order cumulative probability plot
- Ascending and descending cumulative plots
- Tornado plot
- Box Plot
- Cumulative distribution function (cdf)
- Probability density function (pdf)
- Crude sensitivity analysis for identifying important input distributions
- Pareto Plot
- Trend plot
- Probability mass function (pmf)
- Overlaying cdf plots
- Cumulative Plot
- Simulation data table
- Statistics table
- Histogram Plot
- Spider plot
- Determining the width of histogram bars
- Plotting a variable with discrete and continuous elements
- Smoothing a histogram plot
- Risk analysis modeling techniques
- Monte Carlo simulation
- Monte Carlo simulation introduction
- Monte Carlo simulation in ModelRisk
- Filtering simulation results
- Output/Input Window
- Simulation Progress control
- Running multiple simulations
- Random number generation in ModelRisk
- Random sampling from input distributions
- How many Monte Carlo samples are enough?
- Probability distributions
- Distributions introduction
- Probability calculations in ModelRisk
- Selecting the appropriate distributions for your model
- List of distributions by category
- Distribution functions and the U parameter
- Univariate continuous distributions
- Beta distribution
- Beta Subjective distribution
- Four-parameter Beta distribution
- Bradford distribution
- Burr distribution
- Cauchy distribution
- Chi distribution
- Chi Squared distribution
- Continuous distributions introduction
- Continuous fitted distribution
- Cumulative ascending distribution
- Cumulative descending distribution
- Dagum distribution
- Erlang distribution
- Error distribution
- Error function distribution
- Exponential distribution
- Exponential family of distributions
- Extreme Value Minimum distribution
- Extreme Value Maximum distribution
- F distribution
- Fatigue Life distribution
- Gamma distribution
- Generalized Extreme Value distribution
- Generalized Logistic distribution
- Generalized Trapezoid Uniform (GTU) distribution
- Histogram distribution
- Hyperbolic-Secant distribution
- Inverse Gaussian distribution
- Johnson Bounded distribution
- Johnson Unbounded distribution
- Kernel Continuous Unbounded distribution
- Kumaraswamy distribution
- Kumaraswamy Four-parameter distribution
- Laplace distribution
- Levy distribution
- Lifetime Two-Parameter distribution
- Lifetime Three-Parameter distribution
- Lifetime Exponential distribution
- LogGamma distribution
- Logistic distribution
- LogLaplace distribution
- LogLogistic distribution
- LogLogistic Alternative parameter distribution
- LogNormal distribution
- LogNormal Alternative-parameter distribution
- LogNormal base B distribution
- LogNormal base E distribution
- LogTriangle distribution
- LogUniform distribution
- Noncentral Chi squared distribution
- Noncentral F distribution
- Normal distribution
- Normal distribution with alternative parameters
- Maxwell distribution
- Normal Mix distribution
- Relative distribution
- Ogive distribution
- Pareto (first kind) distribution
- Pareto (second kind) distribution
- Pearson Type 5 distribution
- Pearson Type 6 distribution
- Modified PERT distribution
- PERT distribution
- PERT Alternative-parameter distribution
- Reciprocal distribution
- Rayleigh distribution
- Skew Normal distribution
- Slash distribution
- SplitTriangle distribution
- Student-t distribution
- Three-parameter Student distribution
- Triangle distribution
- Triangle Alternative-parameter distribution
- Uniform distribution
- Weibull distribution
- Weibull Alternative-parameter distribution
- Three-Parameter Weibull distribution
- Univariate discrete distributions
- Discrete distributions introduction
- Bernoulli distribution
- Beta-Binomial distribution
- Beta-Geometric distribution
- Beta-Negative Binomial distribution
- Binomial distribution
- Burnt Finger Poisson distribution
- Delaporte distribution
- Discrete distribution
- Discrete Fitted distribution
- Discrete Uniform distribution
- Geometric distribution
- HypergeoM distribution
- Hypergeometric distribution
- HypergeoD distribution
- Inverse Hypergeometric distribution
- Logarithmic distribution
- Negative Binomial distribution
- Poisson distribution
- Poisson Uniform distribution
- Polya distribution
- Skellam distribution
- Step Uniform distribution
- Zero-modified counting distributions
- More on probability distributions
- Multivariate distributions
- Multivariate distributions introduction
- Dirichlet distribution
- Multinomial distribution
- Multivariate Hypergeometric distribution
- Multivariate Inverse Hypergeometric distribution type2
- Negative Multinomial distribution type 1
- Negative Multinomial distribution type 2
- Multivariate Inverse Hypergeometric distribution type1
- Multivariate Normal distribution
- More on probability distributions
- Approximating one distribution with another
- Approximations to the Inverse Hypergeometric Distribution
- Normal approximation to the Gamma Distribution
- Normal approximation to the Poisson Distribution
- Approximations to the Hypergeometric Distribution
- Stirlings formula for factorials
- Normal approximation to the Beta Distribution
- Approximation of one distribution with another
- Approximations to the Negative Binomial Distribution
- Normal approximation to the Student-t Distribution
- Approximations to the Binomial Distribution
- Normal_approximation_to_the_Binomial_distribution
- Poisson_approximation_to_the_Binomial_distribution
- Normal approximation to the Chi Squared Distribution
- Recursive formulas for discrete distributions
- Normal approximation to the Lognormal Distribution
- Normal approximations to other distributions
- Approximating one distribution with another
- Correlation modeling in risk analysis
- Common mistakes when adapting spreadsheet models for risk analysis
- More advanced risk analysis methods
- SIDs
- Modeling with objects
- ModelRisk database connectivity functions
- PK/PD modeling
- Value of information techniques
- Simulating with ordinary differential equations (ODEs)
- Optimization of stochastic models
- ModelRisk optimization extension introduction
- Optimization Settings
- Defining Simulation Requirements in an Optimization Model
- Defining Decision Constraints in an Optimization Model
- Optimization Progress control
- Defining Targets in an Optimization Model
- Defining Decision Variables in an Optimization Model
- Optimization Results
- Summing random variables
- Aggregate distributions introduction
- Aggregate modeling - Panjer's recursive method
- Adding correlation in aggregate calculations
- Sum of a random number of random variables
- Moments of an aggregate distribution
- Aggregate modeling in ModelRisk
- Aggregate modeling - Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) method
- How many random variables add up to a fixed total
- Aggregate modeling - compound Poisson approximation
- Aggregate modeling - De Pril's recursive method
- Testing and modeling causal relationships
- Stochastic time series
- Time series introduction
- Time series in ModelRisk
- Autoregressive models
- Thiel inequality coefficient
- Effect of an intervention at some uncertain point in time
- Log return of a Time Series
- Markov Chain models
- Seasonal time series
- Bounded random walk
- Time series modeling in finance
- Birth and death models
- Time series models with leading indicators
- Geometric Brownian Motion models
- Time series projection of events occurring randomly in time
- Simulation for six sigma
- ModelRisk's Six Sigma functions
- VoseSixSigmaCp
- VoseSixSigmaCpkLower
- VoseSixSigmaProbDefectShift
- VoseSixSigmaLowerBound
- VoseSixSigmaK
- VoseSixSigmaDefectShiftPPMUpper
- VoseSixSigmaDefectShiftPPMLower
- VoseSixSigmaDefectShiftPPM
- VoseSixSigmaCpm
- VoseSixSigmaSigmaLevel
- VoseSixSigmaCpkUpper
- VoseSixSigmaCpk
- VoseSixSigmaDefectPPM
- VoseSixSigmaProbDefectShiftLower
- VoseSixSigmaProbDefectShiftUpper
- VoseSixSigmaYield
- VoseSixSigmaUpperBound
- VoseSixSigmaZupper
- VoseSixSigmaZmin
- VoseSixSigmaZlower
- Modeling expert opinion
- Modeling expert opinion introduction
- Sources of error in subjective estimation
- Disaggregation
- Distributions used in modeling expert opinion
- A subjective estimate of a discrete quantity
- Incorporating differences in expert opinions
- Modeling opinion of a variable that covers several orders of magnitude
- Maximum entropy
- Probability theory and statistics
- Probability theory and statistics introduction
- Stochastic processes
- Stochastic processes introduction
- Poisson process
- Hypergeometric process
- The hypergeometric process
- Number in a sample with a particular characteristic in a hypergeometric process
- Number of hypergeometric samples to get a specific number of successes
- Number of samples taken to have an observed s in a hypergeometric process
- Estimate of population and sub-population sizes in a hypergeometric process
- The binomial process
- Renewal processes
- Mixture processes
- Martingales
- Estimating model parameters from data
- The basics
- Probability equations
- Probability theorems and useful concepts
- Probability parameters
- Probability rules and diagrams
- The definition of probability
- The basics of probability theory introduction
- Fitting probability models to data
- Fitting time series models to data
- Fitting correlation structures to data
- Fitting in ModelRisk
- Fitting probability distributions to data
- Fitting distributions to data
- Method of Moments (MoM)
- Check the quality of your data
- Kolmogorov-Smirnoff (K-S) Statistic
- Anderson-Darling (A-D) Statistic
- Goodness of fit statistics
- The Chi-Squared Goodness-of-Fit Statistic
- Determining the joint uncertainty distribution for parameters of a distribution
- Using Method of Moments with the Bootstrap
- Maximum Likelihood Estimates (MLEs)
- Fitting a distribution to truncated censored or binned data
- Critical Values and Confidence Intervals for Goodness-of-Fit Statistics
- Matching the properties of the variable and distribution
- Transforming discrete data before performing a parametric distribution fit
- Does a parametric distribution exist that is well known to fit this type of variable?
- Censored data
- Fitting a continuous non-parametric second-order distribution to data
- Goodness of Fit Plots
- Fitting a second order Normal distribution to data
- Using Goodness-of Fit Statistics to optimize Distribution Fitting
- Information criteria - SIC HQIC and AIC
- Fitting a second order parametric distribution to observed data
- Fitting a distribution for a continuous variable
- Does the random variable follow a stochastic process with a well-known model?
- Fitting a distribution for a discrete variable
- Fitting a discrete non-parametric second-order distribution to data
- Fitting a continuous non-parametric first-order distribution to data
- Fitting a first order parametric distribution to observed data
- Fitting a discrete non-parametric first-order distribution to data
- Fitting distributions to data
- Technical subjects
- Comparison of Classical and Bayesian methods
- Comparison of classic and Bayesian estimate of Normal distribution parameters
- Comparison of classic and Bayesian estimate of intensity lambda in a Poisson process
- Comparison of classic and Bayesian estimate of probability p in a binomial process
- Which technique should you use?
- Comparison of classic and Bayesian estimate of mean "time" beta in a Poisson process
- Classical statistics
- Bayesian
- Bootstrap
- The Bootstrap
- Linear regression parametric Bootstrap
- The Jackknife
- Multiple variables Bootstrap Example 2: Difference between two population means
- Linear regression non-parametric Bootstrap
- The parametric Bootstrap
- Bootstrap estimate of prevalence
- Estimating parameters for multiple variables
- Example: Parametric Bootstrap estimate of the mean of a Normal distribution with known standard deviation
- The non-parametric Bootstrap
- Example: Parametric Bootstrap estimate of mean number of calls per hour at a telephone exchange
- The Bootstrap likelihood function for Bayesian inference
- Multiple variables Bootstrap Example 1: Estimate of regression parameters
- Bayesian inference
- Uninformed priors
- Conjugate priors
- Prior distributions
- Bayesian analysis with threshold data
- Bayesian analysis example: gender of a random sample of people
- Informed prior
- Simulating a Bayesian inference calculation
- Hyperparameters
- Hyperparameter example: Micro-fractures on turbine blades
- Constructing a Bayesian inference posterior distribution in Excel
- Bayesian analysis example: Tigers in the jungle
- Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation
- Introduction to Bayesian inference concepts
- Bayesian estimate of the mean of a Normal distribution with known standard deviation
- Bayesian estimate of the mean of a Normal distribution with unknown standard deviation
- Determining prior distributions for correlated parameters
- Improper priors
- The Jacobian transformation
- Subjective prior based on data
- Taylor series approximation to a Bayesian posterior distribution
- Bayesian analysis example: The Monty Hall problem
- Determining prior distributions for uncorrelated parameters
- Subjective priors
- Normal approximation to the Beta posterior distribution
- Bayesian analysis example: identifying a weighted coin
- Bayesian estimate of the standard deviation of a Normal distribution with known mean
- Likelihood functions
- Bayesian estimate of the standard deviation of a Normal distribution with unknown mean
- Determining a prior distribution for a single parameter estimate
- Simulating from a constructed posterior distribution
- Bootstrap
- Comparison of Classical and Bayesian methods
- Analyzing and using data introduction
- Data Object
- Vose probability calculation
- Bayesian model averaging
- Miscellaneous
- Excel and ModelRisk model design and validation techniques
- Using range names for model clarity
- Color coding models for clarity
- Compare with known answers
- Checking units propagate correctly
- Stressing parameter values
- Model Validation and behavior introduction
- Informal auditing
- Analyzing outputs
- View random scenarios on screen and check for credibility
- Split up complex formulas (megaformulas)
- Building models that are efficient
- Comparing predictions against reality
- Numerical integration
- Comparing results of alternative models
- Building models that are easy to check and modify
- Model errors
- Model design introduction
- About array functions in Excel
- Excel and ModelRisk model design and validation techniques
- Monte Carlo simulation
- RISK ANALYSIS SOFTWARE
- Risk analysis software from Vose Software
- ModelRisk - risk modeling in Excel
- ModelRisk functions explained
- VoseCopulaOptimalFit and related functions
- VoseTimeOptimalFit and related functions
- VoseOptimalFit and related functions
- VoseXBounds
- VoseCLTSum
- VoseAggregateMoments
- VoseRawMoments
- VoseSkewness
- VoseMoments
- VoseKurtosis
- VoseAggregatePanjer
- VoseAggregateFFT
- VoseCombined
- VoseCopulaBiGumbel
- VoseCopulaBiClayton
- VoseCopulaBiNormal
- VoseCopulaBiT
- VoseKendallsTau
- VoseRiskEvent
- VoseCopulaBiFrank
- VoseCorrMatrix
- VoseRank
- VoseValidCorrmat
- VoseSpearman
- VoseCopulaData
- VoseCorrMatrixU
- VoseTimeSeasonalGBM
- VoseMarkovSample
- VoseMarkovMatrix
- VoseThielU
- VoseTimeEGARCH
- VoseTimeAPARCH
- VoseTimeARMA
- VoseTimeDeath
- VoseTimeAR1
- VoseTimeAR2
- VoseTimeARCH
- VoseTimeMA2
- VoseTimeGARCH
- VoseTimeGBMJDMR
- VoseTimePriceInflation
- VoseTimeGBMMR
- VoseTimeWageInflation
- VoseTimeLongTermInterestRate
- VoseTimeMA1
- VoseTimeGBM
- VoseTimeGBMJD
- VoseTimeShareYields
- VoseTimeYule
- VoseTimeShortTermInterestRate
- VoseDominance
- VoseLargest
- VoseSmallest
- VoseShift
- VoseStopSum
- VoseEigenValues
- VosePrincipleEsscher
- VoseAggregateMultiFFT
- VosePrincipleEV
- VoseCopulaMultiNormal
- VoseRunoff
- VosePrincipleRA
- VoseSumProduct
- VosePrincipleStdev
- VosePoissonLambda
- VoseBinomialP
- VosePBounds
- VoseAIC
- VoseHQIC
- VoseSIC
- VoseOgive1
- VoseFrequency
- VoseOgive2
- VoseNBootStdev
- VoseNBoot
- VoseSimulate
- VoseNBootPaired
- VoseAggregateMC
- VoseMean
- VoseStDev
- VoseAggregateMultiMoments
- VoseDeduct
- VoseExpression
- VoseLargestSet
- VoseKthSmallest
- VoseSmallestSet
- VoseKthLargest
- VoseNBootCofV
- VoseNBootPercentile
- VoseExtremeRange
- VoseNBootKurt
- VoseCopulaMultiClayton
- VoseNBootMean
- VoseTangentPortfolio
- VoseNBootVariance
- VoseNBootSkewness
- VoseIntegrate
- VoseInterpolate
- VoseCopulaMultiGumbel
- VoseCopulaMultiT
- VoseAggregateMultiMC
- VoseCopulaMultiFrank
- VoseTimeMultiMA1
- VoseTimeMultiMA2
- VoseTimeMultiGBM
- VoseTimeMultBEKK
- VoseAggregateDePril
- VoseTimeMultiAR1
- VoseTimeWilkie
- VoseTimeDividends
- VoseTimeMultiAR2
- VoseRuinFlag
- VoseRuinTime
- VoseDepletionShortfall
- VoseDepletion
- VoseDepletionFlag
- VoseDepletionTime
- VosejProduct
- VoseCholesky
- VoseTimeSimulate
- VoseNBootSeries
- VosejkProduct
- VoseRuinSeverity
- VoseRuin
- VosejkSum
- VoseTimeDividendsA
- VoseRuinNPV
- VoseTruncData
- VoseSample
- VoseIdentity
- VoseCopulaSimulate
- VoseSortA
- VoseFrequencyCumulA
- VoseAggregateDeduct
- VoseMeanExcessP
- VoseProb10
- VoseSpearmanU
- VoseSortD
- VoseFrequencyCumulD
- VoseRuinMaxSeverity
- VoseMeanExcessX
- VoseRawMoment3
- VosejSum
- VoseRawMoment4
- VoseNBootMoments
- VoseVariance
- VoseTimeShortTermInterestRateA
- VoseTimeLongTermInterestRateA
- VoseProb
- VoseDescription
- VoseCofV
- VoseAggregateProduct
- VoseEigenVectors
- VoseTimeWageInflationA
- VoseRawMoment1
- VosejSumInf
- VoseRawMoment2
- VoseShuffle
- VoseRollingStats
- VoseSplice
- VoseTSEmpiricalFit
- VoseTimeShareYieldsA
- VoseParameters
- VoseAggregateTranche
- VoseCovToCorr
- VoseCorrToCov
- VoseLLH
- VoseTimeSMEThreePoint
- VoseDataObject
- VoseCopulaDataSeries
- VoseDataRow
- VoseDataMin
- VoseDataMax
- VoseTimeSME2Perc
- VoseTimeSMEUniform
- VoseTimeSMESaturation
- VoseOutput
- VoseInput
- VoseTimeSMEPoisson
- VoseTimeBMAObject
- VoseBMAObject
- VoseBMAProb10
- VoseBMAProb
- VoseCopulaBMA
- VoseCopulaBMAObject
- VoseTimeEmpiricalFit
- VoseTimeBMA
- VoseBMA
- VoseSimKurtosis
- VoseOptConstraintMin
- VoseSimProbability
- VoseCurrentSample
- VoseCurrentSim
- VoseLibAssumption
- VoseLibReference
- VoseSimMoments
- VoseOptConstraintMax
- VoseSimMean
- VoseOptDecisionContinuous
- VoseOptRequirementEquals
- VoseOptRequirementMax
- VoseOptRequirementMin
- VoseOptTargetMinimize
- VoseOptConstraintEquals
- VoseSimVariance
- VoseSimSkewness
- VoseSimTable
- VoseSimCofV
- VoseSimPercentile
- VoseSimStDev
- VoseOptTargetValue
- VoseOptTargetMaximize
- VoseOptDecisionDiscrete
- VoseSimMSE
- VoseMin
- VoseMin
- VoseOptDecisionList
- VoseOptDecisionBoolean
- VoseOptRequirementBetween
- VoseOptConstraintBetween
- VoseSimMax
- VoseSimSemiVariance
- VoseSimSemiStdev
- VoseSimMeanDeviation
- VoseSimMin
- VoseSimCVARp
- VoseSimCVARx
- VoseSimCorrelation
- VoseSimCorrelationMatrix
- VoseOptConstraintString
- VoseOptCVARx
- VoseOptCVARp
- VoseOptPercentile
- VoseSimValue
- VoseSimStop
- Precision Control Functions
- VoseAggregateDiscrete
- VoseTimeMultiGARCH
- VoseTimeGBMVR
- VoseTimeGBMAJ
- VoseTimeGBMAJVR
- VoseSID
- Generalized Pareto Distribution (GPD)
- Generalized Pareto Distribution (GPD) Equations
- Three-Point Estimate Distribution
- Three-Point Estimate Distribution Equations
- VoseCalibrate
- ModelRisk interfaces
- Integrate
- Data Viewer
- Stochastic Dominance
- Library
- Correlation Matrix
- Portfolio Optimization Model
- Common elements of ModelRisk interfaces
- Risk Event
- Extreme Values
- Select Distribution
- Combined Distribution
- Aggregate Panjer
- Interpolate
- View Function
- Find Function
- Deduct
- Ogive
- AtRISK model converter
- Aggregate Multi FFT
- Stop Sum
- Crystal Ball model converter
- Aggregate Monte Carlo
- Splicing Distributions
- Subject Matter Expert (SME) Time Series Forecasts
- Aggregate Multivariate Monte Carlo
- Ordinary Differential Equation tool
- Aggregate FFT
- More on Conversion
- Multivariate Copula
- Bivariate Copula
- Univariate Time Series
- Modeling expert opinion in ModelRisk
- Multivariate Time Series
- Sum Product
- Aggregate DePril
- Aggregate Discrete
- Expert
- ModelRisk introduction
- Building and running a simple example model
- Distributions in ModelRisk
- List of all ModelRisk functions
- Custom applications and macros
- ModelRisk functions explained
- Tamara - project risk analysis
- Introduction to Tamara project risk analysis software
- Launching Tamara
- Importing a schedule
- Assigning uncertainty to the amount of work in the project
- Assigning uncertainty to productivity levels in the project
- Adding risk events to the project schedule
- Adding cost uncertainty to the project schedule
- Saving the Tamara model
- Running a Monte Carlo simulation in Tamara
- Reviewing the simulation results in Tamara
- Using Tamara results for cost and financial risk analysis
- Creating, updating and distributing a Tamara report
- Tips for creating a schedule model suitable for Monte Carlo simulation
- Random number generator and sampling algorithms used in Tamara
- Probability distributions used in Tamara
- Correlation with project schedule risk analysis
- Pelican - enterprise risk management
- ModelRisk Cloud system
- ModelRisk Cloud introduction
- Getting your software ready
- Starting ModelRisk Cloud
- Uploading a risk analysis model
- Creating a new scenario for the risk analysis model
- Running a Monte Carlo simulation of the model
- Uploading a SID (Simulation Imported Data file)
- Building a risk analysis model that uses SIDs
- Viewing the Monte Carlo results from a simulation run
- Administrator's use of ModelRisk Cloud
- Preparing a risk analysis model for upload to ModelRisk Cloud
- ModelRisk Result Viewer
Enterprise Risk Management software (ERM)
Learn more about our enterprise risk analysis management software tool, Pelican
